Overview
Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) is defined as informal and often unregulated gold mining operations conducted by individuals or small groups using basic tools and techniques. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has become an attractive alternative source of living for people in poor rural communities, leading to a reduction in agricultural activities and attracting more migrant workers due to the continuous increase in international gold prices. Moreover, in most cases, there are few alternative sources of employment and so ASGM is seen as a good way to sustain livelihood.
ASGM can be described as a type of mining with intense labor activity located in remote and isolated sites, using rudimentary techniques and low technological knowledge, low degree of mechanization, and low levels of environmental, health, and safety awareness. Artisanal in this regard refers to how rudimentary the type of operation is despite how large or small the operation is. The majority of ASGM mining takes place in developing countries where miners rely on the sales of gold for their livelihood.
The activities in the ASGM sector are mostly informal operations done with no license or legal authorization, thus making effective regulations challenging. Most people have the assertion that the industry is poverty-driven. Unlike small-scale mining, large-scale gold mining is governed by a framework of regulatory controls, permits, and inspections and is subject to health, safety, social, environmental, and governance standards.
Process
The process of ASGM involves a series of steps including extraction of ore from the soil, crushing of the ore using rudimentary tools, milling of the ore into fine powder, concentration and washing in pans, amalgamation to capture the gold and lastly burning the amalgam to recover the gold. Amalgamation is a process whereby mercury captures fine-grained gold by forming an amalgam with the precious metal. The amalgam is then heated in a metal pan in an open fire for the mercury to vaporize while the gold remains. There are two main methods in which mercury is used in the ASGM sector; whole -ore amalgamation and concentrate amalgamation. The method that is more dominant in many African countries is the heavy mineral concentrate amalgamation while the whole ore is common in some parts of Asia. In the whole ore amalgamation, mercury is added to rotating drums in which crushed gold ore is ground up by hard metal rods or balls. During this procedure, the mercury is beaten to produce mercury flour. The Gold captured by the flour is however not recoverable which causes a financial loss for miners.
With the second method, a heavy mineral concentrate is produced from ground-up ore to which mercury is added. A gram of mercury is required to extract one gram of gold with less mercury escaping, unlike the whole ore amalgamation method. Both methods however significantly pollute the environment which affects the ecosystem and human health.
ASGM in the African Context
There has been a significant growth in ASGM in Africa over the last twenty years. It is estimated that more than ten million people across Africa are engaged in ASGM and are at risk of exposure to toxic chemicals. ASGM has become more attractive in some African countries due to the rising international gold prices, making it an alternative for other economic activities such as farming, fishing, etc.
Efforts to improve the practices that can reduce the environmental and social impact associated with the sector in Sub-Saharan Africa have failed due to the top-down policy measures, making change and formalization of the sector complicated and burdensome. Also, the regulations in Africa to streamline the operations of ASGM are found to be inadequate with the enforcement level being low.
The poor environmental practices associated with ASGM are due to the low level of formal education among miners, the lack of training in mercury toxicity and management processes as well as the lack of awareness of the harmful effects of their actions.
However, these environmental problems are overlooked by the small-scale miners and even the governments of these African nations due to the economic benefits derived from such activities, making the small-term economic gains prevail over long-term environmental resolutions.
Due to the positive aspects of the ASGM in emerging economies like economic growth, source of employment, etc. various international organizations, governments, NGOs, businesses, and other stakeholders are working to improve the sector, by making working conditions safer, more sustainable, and more formalized so it can play an even bigger role in global development.
Reference
Implications of ASGM in Africa
In Africa, ASGM has significant implications:
- Economic Significance: ASGM is a crucial source of income for millions of people in Africa, particularly in rural and impoverished areas where alternative job opportunities are limited.
- Environmental Impact: ASGM is often associated with environmental degradation, including deforestation, water pollution, and soil erosion. The use of mercury in gold extraction can contaminate water sources and harm ecosystems.
- Health Risks: Miners and nearby communities face health risks from exposure to mercury and other hazardous substances used in the mining process. This can lead to serious health issues, especially among children and pregnant women.
- Social Challenges: ASGM can perpetuate social challenges such as child labor, unsafe working conditions, and gender inequalities. Miners, including children, often work in dangerous environments without proper protection.
- Governance and Regulation: The informal nature of ASGM makes it difficult for governments to regulate and control the sector, leading to revenue loss, and illegal trade.
- Conflicts: ASGM activities can lead to conflicts between the different actors, including miners, communities, and larger mining corporations, as they compete for resources, mining rights and control over mining areas.
- Traceability: ASGM gold can enter the global supply chain through informal channels, making it challenging to ensure ethical sourcing and traceability.
- Economic Vulnerability: Dependence on ASGM exposes communities to fluctuations in gold prices, market demand, and other economic factors, which can be disruptive to livelihoods.
- Formalization Efforts: Various partnerships between governments, NGOs, and the private sector aim to formalize and improve ASGM practices. Activities promote safer working conditions, reduce environmental impact, and ensure fair distribution of benefits.
- Sustainable Development: Addressing the challenges of ASGM requires a balanced approach: recognize its economic importance while mitigating its negative social and environmental impacts. This requires implementing responsible mining practices, providing education and alternative livelihoods, and supporting health and safety measures for miners and communities.
In summary, ASGM in Africa presents a complex set of challenges and opportunities. While it provides economic opportunities for marginalized communities, its informal and often unsustainable practices contribute to environmental degradation, health risks, and social inequalities. Efforts to address these issues focus on promoting responsible mining, improving governance, and supporting sustainable development in ASGM-affected regions.
ASGM as a Major Source of Pollution
Despite the economic benefits of the ASGM sector, it has been made evident through various research that ASGM activities lead to environmental and social issues such as pollution, adverse health outcomes, and other human rights issues including child labor . ASGM has been listed consistently as a major source of pollution, polluting the air, soil, and water bodies, and hence affecting human health and natural ecosystems. Serious health concerns have been associated with heavy metal poisoning from metals such as mercury and cadmium through ASGM operations. For instance, it is estimated that gold production from small-scale mining accounts for about 38 percent of total mercury emissions globally.
ASGM has been a significant source of mercury pollution which also affects human health. This mostly happens through two significant steps in the process; amalgamation and amalgam generate lots of mercury vapors. A WHO report shows that the main route of exposure to mercury is from the inhalation of a vaporized form of elemental mercury during amalgam. However, the amount of environmental emission from ASGM activities depends on the method used . For instance, the emission of mercury into the environment from the whole ore amalgamation process is more enormous compared to the gravity amalgamation method. The mercury emissions mostly occur from the disposal of mercury-laced tailings, the process of water flowing into water bodies and mercury vapor emitting into the atmosphere through the smelting process. Health issues associated with mercury pollution include damage to cognitive and neurological function, physical and mental disabilities in children, etc.
Factors hindering the proper management of the ASGM sector (Challenges)
There is limited data and knowledge about the amount of mercury used or the extent of mercury contamination and its health, environmental, and social impacts. Most efforts in finding solutions to ASGM issues have been based on incomplete and inaccurate data, making addressing such issues complex and challenging. Although some stakeholders might possess certain data and information, in most cases it is rarely aggregated or shared due to the lack of coordination among stakeholders.
Another factor that hinders the proper management of ASGM in various countries is the lack of enforcement of existing mining laws and regulations.
It has also been identified that awareness campaigns that demonstrate the harm mercury causes to the environment and human health are not enough to motivate change. Likewise, education and training on mercury-free technologies have been on a low level. Other miners have argued that mercury-free technologies often have a lower yield and hence this discourages them from patronizing such processes.
Estimated annual mercury use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM)